| Clinical trials |
| CGA | 1 g (p.o.) | 84 | Mild cognitive impairment | Human (♂♀) | ↑Cognition | | (Ochiai et al., 2019) |
| 300 mg (p.o.) | 112 | Healthy, middle and elderly population | Human (♂) | ↑Cognition | ↑ApoA1↑TTR | (Saitou et al., 2018) |
| 330 mg (p.o.) | 168 | Healthy elderly population | Human (♂♀) | ↑Cognition | ↓Aβ42/Aβ40 | (Kato et al., 2018) |
| Pre-clinical trials |
| GCBE | 100 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) (67% CGA) | 28 | Cortical injury induced by high-fat diet and streptozotocin | Wistar rats (♂) | ↑Neurotransmitters↓Apoptosis↓Inflammation↓Oxidative stress | ↑Bcl2↑Cat↑GPx↑GSH↑SOD↓Bax↓Caspase 3↓IL-1β↓iNOS↓TNF-α | (Al-Brakati et al., 2020) |
| 1% diet(48% CGA) | 126 | Alzheimer’s disease | APP/PS2 mice (♂) | ↑Cognition | ↓TTR↓APP↓Aβ plaques | (Ishida et al., 2020b) |
| 40 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) (50% CGA) | 154 | Fructose-inducedAlzheimer’s disease | Wistar rats (♂) | ↑Cognition | ↓Akt↓PI3K↓GSK3β↓p-IRS Ser307↓p-Tau | (Mohamed et al., 2020) |
| 80 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) (45% CGA) | 140 | Brain insulin resistance induced by high-fat diet | C57B6SJL mice (♀) | Gene expression changes in the brain | 604 genes, which some are involved in glucose, lipid, insulin and redox signaling pathways | (Ho et al., 2012) |
| 5-CQA | 0.8% diet | 147 | Alzheimer’s disease | APP/PS2 mice (♂) | ↑Cognition↓Aβ plaques | ↑AQP4↑LRP-1 | (Ishida et al., 2020a) |
| 100 mg/kg b.w. (p.o.) | 24 | MPTP-inducedParkinson’s disease | Swiss mice (♂) | ↑Locomotor behavior↓Apoptosis↓Neurodegeneration↓Oxidative stress↓Inflammation | ↑Bcl-2↑Cat↑IL-10↑p-Akt↑p-ERK1/2↑p-GSK3β↟SOD↓Bax↓IL-1β↓iNOS↓NF-κB↓TNFα | (Singh et al., 2018, 2020) |
| 60 mg/kg b.w. (i.p.) | 7 | 6-OHDA-inducedParkinson’s disease | Sprague-Dawley rats (♂) | ↑Locomotor behavior↓Oxidative stress | ↑Bcl-2↑GPx↑SOD↓Bax | (Shan et al., 2019) |